II. AN OUTLINE OF VIETNAMESE DAOISM
In China
Daoism developed diversely.
Daoist priests or magicians [3]
devoted themselves to talismans and alchemy. They belonged to the sect of
immortality, alchemy, and talismans. The entire Daoist texts are very abundant
and complex. They were collected and compiled as Daozang (the Daoist Canon).
King Xuanzong (reigned 712-756)
of the Tang dynasty, confident that he was the descendant of Laozi, issued a
decree to search for all existing Daoist texts throughout the empire. The
collection of these Daoist texts during Kaiyuan era (713-741) of the Tang
dynasty was titled Sandong Qionggang
(Exquisite Compendium of the Three Grottoes) or Kaiyuan Daozang (Daozang of the Kaiyuan era) of about three
thousand seven hundred volumes which are no longer extant.
Subsequent compilations were
attempted on the command of various Song kings. The Daozang during the reign of
Emperor Shenzong (reigned 1067-1085) of the Song dynasty was titled Da Song Tiangong Baozang (Precious Canon
of the Heavenly Palace
Under the Jin dynasty there
was Da Jin Xuanduo Baozang (Precious Canon of the Mysterious Capital of the Great Jin
Dynasty) of about six thousand four hundred volumes, which are no longer
extant. Xuanduo Baozang (Precious Canon of the Mysterious Capital) was compiled in 1244,
including seven thousand volumes which are no longer extant.
The Daoist Canon in Zhengtong
era (1436-1449) of Emperor Ming Yingzong called Zhengtong Daozang (Daoist Canon of the Zhengtong era)
consists of five thousand three hundred and five volumes. A supplement in 1607 comprises
of one hundred and eight volumes, called Xu
Daozang (Supplementary Daoist Canon). These two extant collections include
five thousand four hundred and eighty-five volumes in total.[4]
Daoist sects are abundant and
very complex. Some of them are as follows:
1. The Zhengyi sect, also called Tianshi (Heavenly Master), from Longhu Shan (Dragon Tiger
mountain), Jiangxi
Province
2. The Maoshan sect, with two styles of practice: (a) meditation based on
the Huangting Jing (Yellow Court
Canon); and (b) martial art based on the Qimen
Dunjia.
3. The Taiji sect from Mount Wudang in Hubei
4. The Quanzhen sect,
influencing laymen who practise Daoist meditation (interior alchemy) at home.
5. The Lushan sect whose
adherents wrap a red cloth around the head, blow on a buffalo horn, and ring a
bell during their liturgy.[5]
It seems that when being
brought to Vietnam about the
2nd century Daoism had religious features, because after the death of Emperor
Lingdi of the Han dynasty in 189, China
was in disorder, a host of Chinese refugees fled the empire and came to settle
in Jiaozhou (Northern Vietnam today). Among
them were many Daoists who practiced abstinence from cereal and methods of
immortality.[6]
The Chinese mandarins ruling
Jiaozhou almost enjoyed magical practice. According to Đại Việt Sử Ký Toàn Thư (Complete History of Great Việt), vol. 3, Thái Thú (Prefect) Shi Xie (137-226) of
Jiaozhou died of sickness. Three days later, a Chinese Daoist named Dongfeng
came and gave medicine to revive him.[7]
This book also says Thứ Sử (Governor)
Zhang Jin who arrived in Jiaozhou in 201 often wore a red turban and read
Daoist texts.[8]
In 865, under the Tang
dynasty (618-907), Gao Pian intruded into Vietnam Vietnam ’s
sacred places so that Vietnam
would no longer have talents or heroes and Vietnam
Being both religious and
philosophical, and infused with Vietnam
1. SOME TYPICAL TENDENCIES OF VIETNAMESE DAOISM
a. Magic practice and violence
Talismans have affected the
social activities for many centuries. For example, the tiger is considered to
be able to ward off evil spirits; thus, a tiger talisman can be posted on the
front door to protect the family. This talisman is named bùa trừ tà trị bệnh, trấn trạch bình an (talisman for healing the
sick, warding off evil spirits, and protecting the house).
Vietnamese Daoism could
attract peasants into secret societies for their mutual help against local
tyrants or for political purposes.
In the reign of King Trần Phế
Đế (reigned 1377-1388), Nguyễn Bổ
with Daoist name Đường Lang Tử Y (a purple-dress native of Đường Lang)
proclaimed himself emperor in Bắc Giang area in 1379.[9]
Under the Hồ dynasty
(1400-1407), Trần Đức Huy who used
magical power to attract many people [10]
was suppressed by Hồ Quý Ly in 1403.
During the French colonial
rule, there was a resistance of Daoist Trần
Cao Vân (1866-1916), whose real name was Trần Công Thọ, styled Hồng Việt, a
native of Tư Phú village, Đa Hòa town, Điện Bàn district, Quảng Nam province.
In the South, Thiên Địa Hội (Tiandihui, Heaven-Earth
Society) was a secret society attracting thousands of people. In March 1913, Phan Phát Sanh or Phan Xích Long (1893-1916) proclaimed himself emperor and revolted
against the French. With talismans, swords, sabers, spears, and sticks, the
partisans moved forward regardless of the enemy’s firearms.[11]
Such resistance movements took
place throughout the country, for example, those of Mạc Đình Phúc in the North, Võ
Trứ in the Central, and Nguyễn Hữu
Trí in the South, etc.
2. Geomancy and prophecy
In Vietnam
Under the Hồ dynasty
(1400-1407), in Tân Hưng area, An Phủ Sứ (Pacification Commissioner) Trần Quốc Kiệt wrote Hình Thế Địa Mạch Ca (Land Condition and
Soil Veins in Verse).[12]
Under the Mạc dynasty
(1527-1592), Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm
(1491-1585) with his Daoist name of Bạch Vân Cư Sĩ (White Cloud Hermit),
popularly called Trạng Trình, was very well-known for his prophecy.
During the period of Lê kings
and Trịnh lords (1545-1787), Nguyễn Đức
Huyên, a native of Tả Ao village, Nghệ An province, was very well-known for
geomancy.
Under the Tây Sơn dynasty
(1778-1802), Nguyễn Thiếp (or La Sơn Phu Tử, 1723-1804) in La Sơn
district, Hà Đông province, was also a very famous geomancer.
Eminent monks also used
prophecy. In Cổ Pháp village, Bắc Ninh province, Vinītaruci sect had lots of
celebrities such as monk Định Không
(in the 8th century, of the 8th generation); monk La Quý An (852-936, of the 10th generation), monk Vạn Hạnh (?-1018, of the 12th
generation), etc.
3. Secret art of longevity
King Trần Dụ Tông (reigned 1341-1369) practiced secret art of longevity
from a Daoist priest named Huyền Vân at mount
Niết (mount Phụng
Under the Hồ dynasty
(1400-1407), a person named Trần Tu
of Cổ Định village, Nông Cống district, Thanh Hóa province, lived in seclusion
on mount Nưa
During the period of Lê kings
and Trịnh lords (1545-1787) there was a successful longevity practitioner named
Phạm Viên in Đông Thành district.
Under the reign of King Lê Hiển
Tông (1740-1786), Nguyễn Hoản
(1713-1791), a native of Lan Khê village, Nông Cống district, Thanh Hóa
province, was Thượng Thư Bộ Lại
(Imperial Secretary of Personnel Ministry). According to the section Tiên Khảo Đạo Tu Lục (Records of
Ancestors’ Longevity Practice) in the genealogy of his clan, he started
longevity practice in 1745, and often read Daodejing
(The Way and its Power); set up a meditation room at home (1752); started
worshipping the Five-Mountain Gods (1760); built a twelve-storey tower to
practice the yin-yang vital forces, etc. Due to crazy passion, he finally went
astray to evil ways.[13]
4. Enjoying tranquility and leisure
Strongly influenced by
Laozi’s and Zhuangzi’s philosophy of nonaction and tranquility, Vietnamese
Confucian scholars tended to live in seclusion, love the nature, and enjoy
their leisure with drinking liquor, playing chess, playing string-musical
instrument, reciting poems, writing calligraphy, and working on paintings, etc.
This tendency is suitable for those who fail in society or are fed up with the
bustling secular life. Thus, former Vietnamese Confucian scholars were prepared
to be engaged in society or to retreat from it. Having found favourable opportunities
to exert their talents, they took part in social and political affairs. Otherwise,
getting into disadvantageous situations, being fed up with bureaucratic life, or
ageing, they retreated and led a secluded life in rural areas or remote places.
Nguyễn Phi Khanh (1355-1428) of
the Trần dynasty said:
A hundred years of floating life is just a dream,
Enjoying half-day leisure,
I would be also like an immortal.[14]
Nguyễn Bỉnh Khiêm (1491-1585) of
the Mạc dynasty said:
A day free from all secular affairs,
A day do I become
immortal.[15]
Or :
Sipping liquor at the foot of a tree,
As a dream do I take social affairs.
Under the Lê-Mạc dynasties (1533-1592), Nguyễn Hãng, a native
of Xuân Lũng village, Lâm Thao prefecture, Sơn Tây town, after having passed
the Hương Cống exam, did not want to
be a court official but lived in seclusion in Đại Đồng village, Yên Bình
district, Tuyên Quang province. His literary name was Nại Hiên (Eaves of Patience). Under the Later Lê dynasty he was
bestowed the title of Thảo Mao Dật Sĩ
(Thatched-Cottage Hermit). His works in verse such as Đại Đồng Phong Cảnh Phú (On the Landscape of Đại Đồng), Tam Ngung Động Phú (On Tam Ngung
Grotto), Tịch Cư Ninh Thể Phú (On
Good Health in Seclusion), etc. exalt
the pleasure of mountain seclusion.[16]
Under Tây Sơn dynasty, Phan Huy Ích (1750-1822), a native of
Nghệ An province, Daoist name Bảo Chân Đạo Nhân (Preserving Trueness Daoist),
built a house named Bảo Chân Quán (Preserving Trueness Temple) in Thăng Long
(Hà Nội today) in 1796. On the purpose of this temple, he wrote that he had set
it up for him to while away the time sipping tea in the balcony, angling at the
river, playing the string musical instrument, drinking liquor, or reciting
poems as he pleased.[17]
Under the Nguyễn dynasty, Nguyễn Công Trứ (1778-1858), a native
of Uy Viễn village, Nghi Xuân district, Hà Tĩnh province, was a unique
Confucian scholar. He proudly wrote:
Knowing how to be content, at once comes contentment.
Waiting for contentment, when could it be found?
Knowing how to relish leisure, at once it occurs.
Waiting for leisure, when will it come?
Enjoying music, chess, poems, drinking in nature,
how many could ever lead such a lif
to transcend the secular
world?
The tendency of enjoying
tranquility and leisure can be shown in the pleasure of playing bonsai and
artificial mountains. Man can either plant a small rough tree with
intentionally twisted branches and trimmed foliage, or display a small mountain
made of rocks in a low basin with shallow water. Added to the setting are some
tiny plants, a bridge, a fishing boat, one or two little ceramic statuettes of
a woodman, an angler, two partners playing chess, etc. Such a setting is a
miniature of the real immense nature.
Playing bonsai and artificial
mountains has been regarded as an elegant hobby helping nourish and improve
human nature and sentiment. This hobby is rated as highly as the pleasure of
playing string musical instrument, playing chess, reciting poems, and drawing.
2. DAOISM INFUSED WITH VIETNAMESE CULT OF DEITIES (WORSHIPPING
NATIONAL PROMINENT FIGURES AND HEROES)
Vietnamese people have a
strong, long-standing belief in the eternity of the souls of national prominent
figures and heroes. Having devoted their whole lives to the nation and people,
they become patron deities and continue rendering services from the afterlife.
It is the simplicity of Vietnamese cult of deities, which is also the patriotic
tradition and veneration of the Vietnamese towards the nation’s heroes and
elites. Vietnamese cult of deities is characterized by the village communal
house (đình làng), the worship of
village tutelary god (thành hoàng),
temples (miếu) or mausoleums (lăng) of deceased noted generals and court
officials.
Daoism as well as
Buddhism was thoroughly mingled with Vietnam Vietnam
Vietnamese cult
of deities also reflects the patriotism of the Vietnamese. Throughout our long
history of both protecting the nation and trying to build it, the Vietnamese
fought bravely against enemies not only with weapons and other visible means
but also with an invisible power, i.e., our strong belief in the sacred vital
force of the nation. We believe that many generations of deceased heroes stand
in the same front with the nation’s righteous cause to protect Vietnam
Indeed,
Vietnamese deities are worshipped beside the Chinese Daoist pantheon. For
example, Thông Thánh Quán (Communication with Saints Temple) in Bạch Hạc (Việt Trì, seventy-five
kilometres north-west of Hà Nội) is dedicated to the river god of Tam Giang as
the local tutelary god. Other Daoist temples are dedicated to the tutelary god
of mount Tản Viên (or mount Ba Vì in Sơn Tây province), the god of Tô Lịch
river, etc. Since the Trần dynasty (1225-1400), Hưng Đạo Vương Trần Quốc Tuấn (1228?-1300) has been worshipped in Vạn
Kiếp, Chí Linh, and then in many areas. Under the Later Lê dynasty (1428-1788),
the temple dedicated to Princess Liễu Hạnh
was set up. Other goddesses are also worshipped throughout the country.
3. SOME NOTED DAOIST TEMPLES
a. Thông Thánh Quán (Saint Communication Temple) in Bạch Hạc (Việt Trì) was probably built
between 650-655, no longer extant since the 14th century.[18]
b. Thái Thanh Cung (Great Purity
Palace
c. Trấn Vũ Quán (Trấn Vũ Temple) was also built
just after King Lý Thái Tổ had moved
the imperial capital to Thăng Long (1010), now located at the corner of Quan Thánh street Thanh Niên street
d. Ngọc Thanh Quán (Jade
Purity Temple )
was on mount Đại
e. Nghinh Tiên Quán (Temple
for Welcoming Immortals) or Vọng Tiên
Quán (Immortal-to-Expect Temple
f. Tiên Tích Tự (Immortal Vestige Temple): While
taking a walk by the lakeside of Kim Âu, south of Thăng Long citadel (the Hà Nội
railway station today), King Lê Hiển
Tông (reigned 1740-1786) met two lady immortals. He, then, had the temple built
there.([22])
g. Đền Ngọc Sơn (Jade Mountain
Temple
h. Bảo Chân Quán (Preserving Trueness
Temple
4. THƯỢNG SƯ NỘI ĐẠO (SUPREME MASTER’S INNER WAY
It was a great Daoist school
of ancient Vietnam
Attaining Dao, he was
bestowed the title of Thượng Sư
(Supreme Master) by God. He was responsible to ward off evil spirits in Hoan
(Thanh Hóa province) and Ái (Nghệ An province).
In Từ Minh village, Hoằng Hóa
district, Thanh Hóa province, Supreme Master establish a Daoist school, named Nội Đạo Trường (Inner Way School
Supreme Master’s three sons
were Nhật Quang, Nguyệt Quang, and Ngọc Quang. Having mastered the dharma
taught by their father, they all were very famous and exalted as Tam Thánh Nội Đạo (the Three Saints of
Inner Way School). After Supreme Master’s decease, Ngọc Quang took over the Inner Way
School
Thanks to the imperial court’s
recognition, the Inner
Way School
The Inner Way School
5. EXAMINATION ON DAOIST LEARNING
The imperial court organized
two Three-Teaching Examinations, one under King Lý Cao Tông’s reign (1195) and
the other under King Trần Thái Tông’s (1247).
On Daoist learning
examination, Nguyễn Đổng Chi (1915-1984) collected the questions of an exam and
the related answers.[25]
Reading this paper may help understand Daoist learning in ancient Vietnam
(1) What is dharma-gate?
All methods return to their origin, which is constant. Myriad of
saints and thousands of gods gather in one gate. So it is called dharma-gate.
(2) What is talismanic water?
The blend of yin force and yang force is sacred. Great pity water which is sprinkled to
scare ghosts is called talismanic water.
(3) Who created dharma-gate?
Dharma-gate was created by Taishang Laojun, who is venerated as
Saint.
(4) Who invented sorcery?
Talismanic water was invented by Zhenwu, who is venerated as
Master.
(5) What is meant by Four Saints, Four
Corners , Four Verticals, and Four Cords?
Thiên Bồng, Thiên Du, Bảo Đức, Hắc Sát are called Four Saints.
Qian (Heaven, West), Kun (Earth, East), Xun (Wind, Northwest), Gen
(Mountain, Northeast) are called Four Corners .
Thiên Hoa, Địa Hoa, Lão Hạc, Đồng Trụ are called Four Verticals.
Rat, Horse, Rabbit, and Rooster are called Four Cords.
(6) What is meant by Three Realms, Three Purities, Three Grottoes,
Three Offices?
Three Realms include Desire Realm, Form Realm, and Formless Realm.
Three Purities include Jade Purity, Supreme Purity, and Great
Purity.
Three Grottoes include Authenticity Grotto, Mystery Grotto, and
Exquisite Grotto.
Three Offices include Thunderbolt, Sacred Treasure, and Great
Mystery.
(7) When were Plague, Locust, Epidemic, Pestilence born?
Huangdi (Yellow Emperor)’s four useless sons were Plague, Locust, Epidemic, Pestilence, born in the time
of Zhuanxu.
(8) How many children do Xun, Li, Kun, Dui have?
Xun (Wind) gives birth to four children, say East, West, South, North.
Li (Fire) gives birth to nine children, from First White, Second Black to Eighth White, Ninth Purple.
Kun (Earth) gives birth to six children, say Six vital forces of Great Yin.
Dui (Lake ) gives birth to seven
children, say Seven-Star Big Dipper.
In all, Xun, Li, Kun, Dui have twenty-six children.
(9) What is meant by “Practice is up to the number of three
thousand, time has forty thousand years”?
The celestial number is one thousand; the terrestrial number is
one thousand, the human number is one thousand. Thus, it is said that practice
is up to the number of three thousand.
The period from Thái Dịch (Taiyi) to Thái Sơ (Taichu) covers ten thousand years. That from Thái Sơ to
Thái Thủy (Taishi) covers ten thousand years. That from Thái Thủy to Thái Tố
(Taisu) covers ten thousand years. That from Thái Tố to Thái Cực (Taiji) covers
ten thousand years. Thus, time covers forty thousand years.
(10) Whose high Dao can subdue dragons and tigers and whose thick
virtue can scare demons and spirits?
Dao is too high to be surpassed. Both dragons (yang essence) and
tigers (yin essence) are subdued by high Dao. Virtue is too thick to be
surpassed. Both demons (dispersed vital force) and spirits (concentrated vital
force) are scared by thick virtue. It is master Phổ Am whose high Dao can
subdue dragons and tigers and whose thick virtue can scare demons and spirits.
(11) What talismans are used and what incantations are read to
capture and tie up evil spirits and demons?
If the seance is held solemnly, if the seats are arranged in an
orderly way, if myriad of saints arrive when the Three Realms are thought of,
and if myriad of gods gather after the drum is beaten three times, the sorcerer
should summon generals and then send them. While thinking of the heavenly net,
he secretly uses talismans, holds mudras, and writes some Chinese characters.
Four characters Sheng (saints) are written over five characters Gui (demons).
The character (...) [26] is combined with myriad of
souls. Sacred talismans of White Snake and One Leg are used. Incantations of
Taishang and Qitian are read.
(12) What way should be used so that the world and its people can
enter the spring terrace and enjoy longevity?
First of all, if our minds are rectified, evil powers cannot
disturb us. First of all, if our bodies are rectified, evil forces cannot
intrude into us. Then, use rectified mind to grant favors upon the people. Then,
use rectified body to help everyone.
The above paper reveals that
the core of Daoist learning in ancient time was emphasized at Daoist religion
rather than Daoist philosophy.
6. IMMORTAL INVOCATION
Invocation
of immortals (cầu tiên)
is a means of communication between visible humans and invisible powers. The
participants usually have various purposes, for example, exchanging extempore
poems with divine spirits, asking for holy medicine, seeking foretelling about
their future or political affairs, etc.
Generally, the merciful being
meets such secular needs in order to nourish their faith and gradually leads
them to the way of self-cultivation under deities’ direct guidance.
When Vietnam
In northern Vietnam there was an evoking séance named Hưng
Thiện (Flourish Good), where Kinh Đạo Nam (The Book of the Vietnam
At the beginning of the 20th
century, various places and seances in southern Vietnam
*
At the beginning of the 20th
century, Caodaism was founded in Vietnam
The Caodaists regard
themselves as followers of Immortalism or as immortality practitioners.
Spiritual writing (cơ bút) is another
similarity between the age-old Daoism and Caodaism. In addition, the Caodai
teaching in verse is a typical feature of Laozi’s and Zhuangzi’s culture.
It is noticeable that the
Founder of Caodaism calls Himself an Immortal (Tiên Ông). Thus, is it possible to regard Caodaism to some extent
as the Vietnamization as well as the modernization of the old-age Daoism?
HUỆ KHẢI
[1] The Spring and Autumn period (770-402 B.C.)
was from Pingwang to the end of Wei Liewang of the Zhou dynasty. The Warring
States period (401-221 B.C.) was from Anwang of the Zhou dynasty to the Qin
Shihuang’s unification of China
[2] Zhang Daoling, styled Fuhan (Supporting the
Han dynasty), was born at mount Tianmu (Heavenly Eyes), Zhejiang, in A.D. 34 or
35, in the reign of Emperor Guangwu (reigned 25-57) of the Han dynasty. He was
also revered as Zhang Tianshi (Heavenly Master Zhang). The title of Tianshi was translated by R. H. Mathews
as “Taoist Pope” (see entry 195h, p.
20) that means “the head of the Taoist
sect” (see entry 6361a-51, p. 922). See: Mathews' Chinese-English dictionary. Cambridge ,
Massachusetts : Harvard University
[3] Holmes Welch (1921-1981) in his Taoism: the Parting of the Ways (Beacon
Press, 1966) called đạo gia Daoist
philosophers, and đạo sĩ Daoist
priests.
[4] According to [Liu Ts’un-yan 1973: 104], at
first the Daoist Canon was of 5,305 volumes, contained in 480 boxes, compiled
at the beginning of the Ming dynasty [A.D. 1368], and finished in 1445. A
supplement in 1607 was of one hundred eighty volumes, called Xu Daozang (Supplementary Daoist Canon).
[6] Buddhist
Tripitaka, N052, History, section IV, Hongmingji, vol. I, reads: 是時靈帝崩後, 天下擾亂, 獨交州差安. 北方異人咸來在焉, 多為神仙辟穀長生之術. (Then after the death of Emperor Han Lingdi,
the empire was in disorder; only Jiaozhou was relatively calm. Unusual people
from the North came to live there. Many of them were Daoists practicing
abstinence from cereal and immortality.) See [Nguyễn Đăng Thục: 1971a: 114].
