Successful candidates’ names on stelae housed at the Literature Temple
I. AN OUTLINE OF
VIETNAMESE CONFUCIANISM
Confucianism was brought into Vietnam
– 111 B.C.-A.D. 39: the Western Han and Eastern Han
dynasties.
– 43-541: the Eastern Han, Three Kingdoms
– 602-905: the Sui, and Tang dynasties.
During the first ten centuries of the Common Era, Vietnamese
Confucian learning did not yet flourish, and Confucian scholars did not yet
turn into a social stratum holding important roles. The excellent
intelligentsia of that time was priests, especially eminent monks. While
learning Chinese characters to read Buddhist sūtras, they absorbed Confucian
learning. Thus, when the nation gained independence from China
Vietnamese Confucian learning culminated from the 11th
century, but gradually declined under the Nguyễn dynasty (1802-1945). Confucian
learning paved the way for literati to become court officials via civil service
examination system, helping to develop literature and enhance culture. Many
former Vietnamese Confucian scholars were also authors who profoundly studied
Confucian philosophy. Unfortunately, due to war after war, too many books were
robbed and destroyed. Thus, their philosophical works were lost and almost
nothing was left for later ages to study. Maybe the prominence of Vietnamese
Confucianism is not philosophical thoughts, but literature, civil service
examination system, and the political role of Confucian scholars in history.
1. VIETNAMESE CONFUCIAN
LEARNING UNDER IMPERIAL DYNASTIES
a. The Lý dynasty
(1009-1225)
Vietnamese Confucian learning
began flourishing. In 1070, King Lý Thánh Tông (reigned 1054-1072) had the Văn Miếu (Literature Temple) built, in
which the statues of the Duke of Zhou, Confucius, and the Seventy-Two Worthies
were worshipped.[1]
In 1075, King Lý Nhân Tông (reigned 1072-1127) opened the first civil service
exam called Tam Trường (Three-Round
Exam) in which the best candidate was Lê Văn Thịnh. The King also set up Quốc Tử Giám (the Imperial College) in
1076, Hàn Lâm Viện (the Imperial Academy),
and chose Mạc Hiển Tích as an Academician.[2]
Noted Confucian scholars under the Lý dynasty were Lý Đạo Thành (?-1081),
Trương Bá Ngọc, Tô Hiến Thành (?-1179), etc.
b. The Trần dynasty
(1225-1400)
King Trần Thái Tông (reigned
1226-1258) opened such exams as the Thái Học
Sinh (High College Student Exam) in 1232, the Tam Giáo (Three-Teaching Exam) in 1247, and the Tam Khôi (Three-Degree Exam) in 1247 to
select Trạng Nguyên (the First
Degree), Bảng Nhãn (the Second
Degree), and Thám Hoa (the Third
Degree). In that exam, Lê Văn Hưu (1230-1322) got Bảng Nhãn and later became the first Vietnamese historian who wrote
Đại Việt Sử Ký (A History of Great Việt).
The King also set up Quốc Học Viện (the
Institute of National Learning
Under the reign of King Trần Duệ Tông (1373-1377), the Thái Học Sinh Exam was renamed as the Tiến Sĩ (Advanced Scholar Exam) in 1374.[4]
Under the reign of King Trần Thuận Tông (1388-1398), Lê Quý
Ly (1336-1407) wrote a book titled Minh Đạo
(Explaining the Dao) in 1392, then translated chapter Wuyi (Against Luxurious Ease) of Shujing (the Book of Documents) in 1394 to teach the crown prince,
and Shijing (the Book of Songs) in
1396 to teach inner palace women.
Under the Trần dynasty, civil
service exams helped to develop literature. Noted Confucian scholars included:
Mạc Đĩnh Chi (1280-1346); Nguyễn Trung Ngạn (1289-1370) with Giới Hiên Toàn Tập (Giới Hiên's Complete Works); Trương Hán Siêu (?-1354); Chu An (1292-1370)
with Tứ Thư Thuyết Ước (Concise
Explanation of the Four Books), and Tiều Ẩn
Quốc Ngữ Thi (Tiều Ẩn's Poems in the Nôm Script); Phạm Sư Mạnh (Chu An’s
student) with Hiệp Thạch Tập (Hiệp Thạch's
Collected Works); Hàn Thuyên (or Nguyễn Thuyên) with Phi Sa Tập (Phi Sa’s Collected Works), etc.
c. The Hồ dynasty
(1400-1407), the Later Trần dynasty (1407-1413), and the period under Chinese
Ming aggression (1407-1427)
Lê Quý Ly (1336–1407), also known as Hồ Quý Ly, overthrew the
Trần dynasty and set up the Hồ dynasty. Chinese Ming aggressors robbed national
archives and brought them to Jinling (Nanjing Vietnam
d. The Later Lê dynasty
(1428-1788)
Under this dynasty, Confucian learning was highly valued as quốc học (national learning). Civil
service exams helped to increase intelligentsia. In the capital there were Quốc Tử Giám (the Imperial
College ) and Thái Học Viện (High
College Literature
Temple
Noted Confucian scholars under the Lê dynasty included Nguyễn
Trãi (1380-1442), Lê Văn Linh, Bùi Cầm Hổ, Nguyễn Thiên Tích, Nguyễn Trực
(1417-1474), Nguyễn Như Đổ (1424-1526), Lương Thế Vinh
(1442-?), Đỗ Nhuận, Thân Nhân Trung, Lương Đắc Bằng (1472-1522), Nguyễn Bỉnh
Khiêm (1491-1585), Phùng Khắc Khoan (1528-1613), Lương Hữu Khánh, Nguyễn Dữ,
Giáp Hải (1515?-1585?), Nguyễn Mậu Nghi, Phạm Công Trứ (1600-1675), Lê Anh Tuấn,
Nguyễn Công Hãng, Phạm Đình Trọng, Lê Quý Đôn (1726-1784), Lý Tử Tấn (1378-?),
Nguyễn Mộng Tuân, Phan Phu Tiên (1370?-?), Ngô Sĩ Liên, etc.
e. The Tây
Sơn dynasty (1778-1802)
After defeating the Chinese Ching invaders in 1789, King
Quang Trung (reigned 1788-1792) set up Sùng
Chính Viện (the Institute
of Governance Veneration
f. The Nguyễn
dynasty (1802-1945)
The learning bound up with civil service exams declined
gradually. The French colonialists conquered Vietnam
2. PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS BY
VIETNAMESE CONFUCIAN SCHOLARS
Under any dynasty, noted Vietnamese Confucian scholars always
appeared and their fame was still recorded in history. Besides politically and
economically supporting the country, former Confucian scholars also contributed
to education and wrote literary works of all genres. Their abundant
philosophical works expressed not only the traditional thoughts of Confucius,
Mencius, the Cheng brothers (Cheng I and Cheng Hao), and Zhuxi, but also
many of the Vietnamese own point of view, showing their independent spirit or
awareness against Chinese thoughts. Unfortunately, most of their works were
lost or destroyed after several centuries of war.
Among many precious and rare reference books are Văn Tịch Chí (Descriptive
Bibliography) in Lịch Triều Hiến Chương
Loại Chí (Records on Administrative Systems of Successive Dynasties) by
Phan Huy Chú (1782-1840) and Tìm Hiểu
Kho Sách Hán-Nôm (Studying the Hán-Nôm Treasury) by Trần Văn Giáp
(1902-1973) that list some extant books, helping posterity overview
philosophical thoughts of former Vietnamese Confucian scholars. According to
these two reference books, overlooking historical, geographical, and literary
writings, some of their typical works on philosophy and education can be
enumerated as follows:
(1) Tứ Thư Thuyết Ước (Concise Explanation of the Four Books, ten volumes, now lost) by Chu An (1292-1370) under the Trần dynasty.
Chu An with his style of Linh Triệt, literary name of Tiều Ẩn, posthumous name
of Văn Trinh, reverent name of Khang Tiết Tiên Sinh, was a native of Văn Thôn
hamlet, Quang Liệt village, Thanh Trì district (now in the outskirt of Hà Nội).
After passing the exam of Thái Học Sinh
(High College Student), he did not want to get any official post but stayed
home to teach. He was famous for high virtue and had students in large number.
King Trần Minh Tông (reigned 1314-1329) invited
him to hold the post of Quốc Tử Giám Tư Nghiệp
(Director of the Imperial
College mount Kiệt Đặc (later called mount Phụng Literature Temple
(2) Chu Dịch Quốc Âm
Giải Nghĩa (Yijing Explained in
the Nôm Script, two volumes), also called Chu
Dịch Quốc Âm Ca [Quyết] (Yijing
Explained in Verse of the Nôm Script), was written before 1743 by Đặng Thái Phương [or Bàng] (1674-?)
under the Later Lê dynasty. He used the 6-8-word verse to explain each line of
sixty-four hexagrams of Yijing. For example, the first line of the first
hexagram (i.e. The Concealed Dragon
Avoids Action) was explained in verse as follows:
Nine at the first place
means the concealed dragon,
Đặng Thái Phương was a native of Uy Viễn village, Nghi Xuân
district, Nghệ An province (later called Xuân Giang village, Nghi Xuân
district, Nghệ Tĩnh province). After passing the exam of Hoành Từ at the age of twenty-two, he became the Tri Huyện (Magistrate) of Giáp Sơn
district (in Hải Dương province), was promoted to Hiệp Trấn (Vice General), then to Hiến Sát Sứ (Justice Commissioner) of Thanh Hóa province. He was Tham Nghị (Consultant) of Sơn Nam
(3) Tứ Thư Ngũ Kinh Toản
Yếu (A Summary of the Four Books and Five Classics, fifteen volumes) by Nguyễn Huy Oánh (1713-1789) under the
Later Lê dynasty. He was styled Thư Hiên with his literary name of Thạc Đình, a native of Lai Thạch village, La Sơn district, Nghệ
Tĩnh province. He passed the Thám Hoa
(the Third Degree of Tam Khôi, i.e., the Three-Degree Exam) in 1748, became Đông
Các Đại Học Sĩ (Great Scholar in the East Hall), was promoted to Lại Bộ Tả Thị Lang (Left Attendant
Gentleman of the Personnel Ministry) as the Chief Envoy of a tributary
delegation to the Ching China. Returning from China
(4) Tính Lý Toản Yếu (A Summary of Nature and Principle, two
volumes) also by Nguyễn Huy Oánh.
Summarizing the essentials of the Four
Books, Five Classics, and Xingli (Nature and Principle), his two books were very useful for civil service exam preparers.[8]
(5) Thánh Mô
Hiền Phạm Lục (Recorded Sayings of Sages and Worthies, twelve volumes) by Lê Quý Đôn (1726-1784) under the Later
Lê dynasty. He was styled Doãn Hậu with his literary name of Quế Đường, a native of Duyên Hà (or Diên Hà) village, Duyên Hà
district, Tiên Hưng prefecture, Sơn Nam
(6) Thư Kinh
Diễn Nghĩa (the Book of Documents
Expounded, three volumes) by Lê Quý Đôn
in 1772. His preface reads:
“I have heard that
governing a nation cannot lack political affairs and that critics often use the
Book of Documents as basis. (...)
Being ignorant and backward, but after many years of studying the Book of
Documents intensively, I understand its profound meanings. Whenever reading it,
I actually feel extraordinarily interested. When being moved with inspiration,
I jotted down my random thoughts, providing evidence from old and present-day
writings in order to verify the book of sages. The essentials of the Book of
Documents are often pointed out herein so that a king’s subjects must criticize
themselves when reading this book. If finding good deeds, they should ardently
imitate them. If finding any evil, they should be afraid and cautious. Thus, it
may be very useful that they can perform their duties attentively and deserve
to be in their positions. With examples of success and failure to be imitated
and prevented in order to preserve peace and warn against downfall, this can be
a pillow-book for the sovereign to apply the rule of virtue. I have also
compared the similarities and differences in commentaries by former Confucian
scholars, and rectified doubtful points ...” [10]
(7) Dịch Kinh Phu Thuyết (Superficial Explanation of the Book of
Change, five volumes) by Lê Quý Đôn.
His Preface reads:
“The Six Classics teach
us to investigate things, extend our knowledge, seek sincerity in our thoughts,
rectify our minds, cultivate ourselves, regulate our families, govern the
nation, and establish peace in the world; but only the Book of Change
sufficiently explains the affairs of heaven, earth, and man as well as the
principles of all beings. (...) Confucius did not enjoy studying the Book of
Changes until his old age. When revising the Six Classics, (...) he wrote the
Ten Wings or Ten Commentaries on the Book of Change only. (...) He explained
the Book without minding wordiness. That is his literature as well as his words
on human nature and Heaven’s course, chiefly to instruct present and later
generations. How earnest he was! I have ever ventured to say that the course of
heaven and earth is permanent by nature, but there are always endless
alterations of fullness and emptiness, of rise and decline, of love and hatred,
of union and separation. Though human beings and myriad of things are much
complicated, they all can be represented by the three hundred and eighty-four
lines of sixty-four hexagrams. Each line or each hexagram has its timely
application. Confucius taught us the art of living, pointing out good or bad,
critical or safe situations. He used very precise images, including nothing
beyond human relations and daily activities. (...) Now speaking of the Texts
appended to hexagrams, (…) only one sentence or one word of Confucius can be
applied endlessly. That is indeed his high virtue and great cause. Moreover,
understanding the hexagrams profoundly and pondering upon the lines thoroughly,
we can examine the course of Heaven, characteristics of things, and the deeds
of the ancients. Both our words and actions should be sincere and righteous. At
work or at rest, we should show respect and honesty in order to keep good and
ward off evil. Isn’t it the very intention of the sages at the beginning when
establishing their teachings? Despite my ignorance and shallow learning, when
reading with respect the sages’ teachings, studying commentaries of Ch’eng I
and Zhuxi, and pondering former Confucian scholars’ remarks, I sometimes feel
moved and then write some more words in five volumes, chiefly for
self-cultivation and mistake reduction. I dare not say that it is an
achievement. Alas! Writing cannot express words completely; words cannot
express thoughts completely. The spirituality and clarity depend on the right
man. Silent fulfillment, confidence that needs no words, depend on virtuous
conduct.(*) It is important
that scholars studying the Book of Change should not only see images and
memorize the texts, see transformations and memorize the prognostications, but
also pay much attention to virtuous conduct in order to understand the sages’
thoughts beyond their words.” [11]
(8) Âm Chất Văn Chú (The Annotated Text of
Unrevealed Virtue, two volumes) by Lê Quý Đôn. Yinzhi Wen (The Text of Unrevealed Virtue), popularly
attributed to Wenchang
Dijun (the God of Literature), is a treatise on moral
retribution, including the thoughts of the Three Teachings. As said in his
preface, his book was based on Dangui Ji (Cinnabar Cinnamon Records, four volumes) by Huang Zhengyuan under the Chinese Qing dynasty
(1761) and Yinzhi Wen Zhu (The Annotated Text of
Unrevealed Virtue, two volumes) by Song Si Ren also
under the Chinese Qing dynasty (1776).[12]
Lê Quý Đôn wrote:
“Wenchang Dijun (the God of Literature)
compiled a 541-character moral treatise. Ancient sages and worthies expanded
its purpose to help people remember and try to follow it. Stories of moral
retribution recorded under each section help people enjoy doing good deeds and
dare not do evil ones. This treatise has a great importance to educating
people.
“(...) Without assessing my capacity, I took these two
Chinese books [by Huang Zhengyuan, and by Song
Si Ren], added some supplements, and put
it in two volumes. In the explanation, I borrowed from either Huang’s or Song’s
book. On narrating stories of retribution, sometimes I copied from other books
as supplement, sometimes I omitted old notes and redundant words, changed
footnotes, and rearranged topically two hundred and eighty-three items in
total, provided that words are concise and the meaning is clear; affairs are explicit
and the grounds distinct. First, this book is aimed at my self-vigilance and
self-cultivation so that I can reduce my mistakes. Next, its purpose is also to
educate my descendants as well as advise literati to mend their ways in accordance
with the rites, preserve virtue, and rely on benevolence so that they can become
superior men rather than inferior men.
“(...) I venture to think that everyone has both the mind
of the body and the mind of the spirit. The former is human desires, the latter
is morality (or heaven truth). Human desires dominating us, we do evil deeds.
Heaven truth conquering human desires, we do good deeds. (...) Thanks to this
book, in regard to a family, they can enjoy happiness and prosperity. In
respect to a state and even the world, habits and customs can be improved,
resulting in peace. It is an extremely important truth which readers should
keep with respect and follow.” [13]
(9) Vân Đài Loại Ngữ (A Collection of Sorted Sayings, four volumes) by Lê Quý Đôn. This book consists of nine
topics whose first one entitled Lý Khí Ngữ
(Sayings on Principle and Vital Force) includes fifty-four items on
universe and cosmology. Although chiefly relying on the Neo-Confucian
cosmology, Lê Quý Đôn also has his own view.[14]
(10) Chu Huấn Toản Yếu (A Summary of Zhuxi’s Teachings, five volumes) by Phạm Nguyễn Du (1739-1787) under the
Later Lê dynasty. He was styled Hiếu Đức and Dưỡng Hiên with his literary name
Thạch Động, a native of Đặng Điền village, Chân Phúc district, Nghệ An
province. He held the official post of Đông
Các Đại Học Sĩ (Great Scholar in the East Hall) and then became Đốc Đồng (Supervisor) of Nghệ An
province. He was a prolific author. On Confucianism, he also wrote Luận Ngữ Ngu Án (The Analects in My
Humble Opinion), etc. Based on Jinsi Lu
(Records of Recent Thoughts) by both Zhuxi and Lu Zuqian under the Song
dynasty, Chu Huấn Toản Yếu includes
more than six hundred items extracted from Zhuxi’s original texts and arranged
in topics.[15]
(11) Xuân Thu Quản Kiến (A
Humble Opinion on the Spring and Autumn Annals, twelve volumes) by Ngô Thì Nhậm (1746-1803) under the
Later Lê dynasty. As a son of Ngô Thì Sĩ (1726-1780), he was styled Hy Doãn
with his literary name Đạt Hiên and dharma name Hải Lượng Thiền Sư (Zen Master
Hải Lượng), a native of Thanh Oai village, Thanh Trì district, Hà Đông
province. He held the official post of Hiến
Sát Phó Sứ (Vice Juridicial Commissioner) in Hải Dương province and then
was promoted to many other important official posts. Under the Tây Sơn dynasty
he was Thị Lang (Attendant
Gentleman), got the title Tình Phái Hầu
(Tình Phái Marquis), and was Chief-Envoy of an envoy delegation to China. He
was a prolific author. In Xuân Thu Quản
Kiến, under each affair cited from The Spring and Autumn Annals by
Confucius, he added some clear notes and gave its source such as from Zuozhuan (Commentary of Zuo), Gongyang Zhuan (Commentary of
Gongyang), Guliang Zhuan (Commentary of Guliang), etc. with
his own comments.[16]
(12) Nhân Thế Tu Tri (Man Should Know, eight
volumes) by Cao Xuân Dục (1842-1923)
under the Nguyễn dynasty. He was styled Tử Phát with his literary name Long
Cương, a native of Thịnh Kháng (later called Thịnh Mỹ) village, Đông Thành
district, Nghệ An province [another source says, Diễn Châu prefecture, Nghệ
Tĩnh province]. He was Học Bộ Thượng Thư (Imperial
Secretary of Education Ministry) and then Tổng
Tài Sử Quán (Supersivor-in-Chief of Historiography Institute), and got the
title An Xuân Tử (Peaceful Spring
Viscount). He was a prolific author.
In respect of Wulun (the Five Cardinal Relationships
between state and citizens, parents and children, husband and wife, siblings,
and friends) and Shiyi (the Ten
Righteousnesses, including kind parents, filial children, good elder siblings,
meek younger ones, righteous husbands, obedient wives, benevolent seniors, safe
juniors, virtuous rulers, and loyal citizens), in the 1901 preface of Nhân Thế Tu Tri he wrote:
“Man must have the Five Cardinal Relationships and the Ten
Righteousnesses, so the topics of ethics and moral conducts are set first. Man
must earn his living and do business, so the topics of occupation and
situational contacts are set next. Man must cultivate himself and regulate his
family, then the topics of self-cultivation and family regulation are set. Man
must contact others, so the topics of social contacts and consolation with
protection are the last to conclude the book. Thus from Classics, History,
Philosophers, and Anthologies, I picked out some moral sayings and particular
affairs of the sages and worthies. Their good words and deeds were selected,
sorted topically, and annotated. Even some evil deeds were also chosen from
books for admonition.”
The book tells eighty stories
occurring in China and Vietnam
*
Vietnamese
Confucianism did not refer to a kind of learning only for literature, civil
service examinations, and poetic recitation. There has been a current of
thought combining the Three Teachings with Vietnamese culture. All researches
on Vietnamese Confucianism have been still preliminary so far because the
greatest obstacle is the loss of many works by former Confucians throughout
dynasties.
At the beginning of the 20th
century, Caodaism appeared in South
Vietnam
HUỆ KHẢI
[1] [Trần
Trọng Kim 1971b: 99]. This footnote indicates that the above information is
from a book by Trần Trọng Kim, published in 1971, page 99. For the related
source in details, see “Bibliography”.
(*) “Writing cannot .
. . virtuous conduct” found in Great
Treatise I (Yijing): 書不盡言，言不盡意. 神而明之存乎其人; 默而成之, 不言而信, 存乎德行. The English trans. by Richard Wilhelm.
Note: Vân 芸 is a kind of fragrant grass, also called vân hương 芸香, whose leaves or flowers, if kept between sheets of paper, can
protect books from worms. Vân Đài is
an upstair library where vân hương is
used to kill worms. Loại Ngữ means
sorted sayings.
